Green and advanced extraction techniques for plant-derived toxins: A systematic review of analytical approaches and challenges

Dipak Kumar MAHIDA; Vishal M. MAKWANA; Ankita PATEL; Rakesh RAWAL

doi:10.55779/nsb17412757

Authors

Dipak Kumar MAHIDA Gujarat University, Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Science, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (IN) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1299-4623
Vishal M. MAKWANA Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Department of Biosciences, Surat, Gujarat (IN) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6343-9449
Ankita PATEL Gujarat University, Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Science, Ahmedabad, Gujarat (IN) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0802-7449
Rakesh RAWAL Gujarat Biotechnology University, Department of Medical Biotechnology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat (IN) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7985-1187

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55779/nsb17412757

Keywords:

deep eutectic solvents, green extraction, plant secondary metabolites, pressurized liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, toxic proteins, ultrasound-assisted extraction

Abstract

Plant-derived toxins exhibit substantial chemical diversity and dual relevance for public health risk and therapeutic discovery. This review synthesized peer-reviewed literature to evaluate conventional approaches (maceration, percolation, decoction, Soxhlet extraction) alongside advanced, environmentally oriented strategies (supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvent systems). The review described selection rules grounded in solvent polarity, pH control, matrix architecture and mass-transfer constraints, and compared techniques across yield, selectivity, solvent and energy use, scalability and environmental footprint. Representative applications spanned alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics, terpenoids and toxic proteins and peptides, with emphasis on temperature management, co-solvent tuning and post-extraction clean-up to preserve structural integrity. Analytical integration with chromatographic and mass-spectrometric platforms, quality assurance, standardization and fitness-for-purpose considerations were mapped for toxicological, pharmacognostic, agricultural and forensic contexts. Future directions were outlined, including continuous-flow and miniaturized formats, solvent substitution with deep eutectic or subcritical-water media, on-line coupling to real-time analytics, and data-driven optimization using artificial intelligence. Taken together, this review provided a comparative, practice-oriented guide to selecting extraction strategies that maximized recovery and integrity of plant toxins while reducing environmental burden and enabling translational use.

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